Female Spies in World War I and World War II

Female Spies in World War I and World War II While almost every nation yet prohibits women in combat, a long history of female involvement in warfare reaches all the way back to ancient times. Extensive documentation exists covering the role of women working undercover or otherwise involved in intelligence work in each of the two world wars. World War I Mata Hari If asked to name a female spy, most people would probably be able to cite Mata Hari of World War I fame. Real name Margaretha Geertruida Zelle McLeod, the woman the world would come to know as Mata Hari was born in the Netherlands. Her cover was that of an exotic dancer from India. While there is little doubt regarding the legitimacy of Mata Haris life as a stripper and sometimes-prostitute, some controversy surrounds whether she was ever actually a spy. Famous as she was if Mata Hari was a spy, she was fairly inept at it. She was caught following contact with an informant, tried and executed as a spy by France. It later came to light that her accuser was, himself, a German spy, effectively casting doubt on her true role in World War I espionage. Edith Cavell Another famous spy from World War I was also executed as a spy. Edith Cavell was born in England, growing up to become a nurse by profession. When World War I erupted, she was working in a nursing school in Belgium. Although she was not a spy as we generally view them, Edith worked undercover to help transport soldiers from France, England, and Belgium to escape from the Germans. She worked as matron of a hospital and, while doing so, helped at least 200 soldiers to escape. When the Germans realized Cavells role in what was happening, she was put on trial for harboring foreign soldiers rather than espionage, and convicted in two days. She was killed by a firing squad in October of 1915 and buried near the execution site despite appeals from the United States and Spain to return her body to her homeland. After the war, her body was transported back to England. Edith Cavell was finally buried in her native land, following a Westminster Abbey service presided by King George V of England. A statue in her honor was erected in St. Martins Park bearing the simple but apt epitaph, Humanity, Fortitude, Devotion, Sacrifice. The statue also carries the quote she gave to the priest who gave her communion the night before her death, Patriotism is not enough, I must have no hatred or bitterness toward anyone. Edith Cavell had, in her lifetime, cared for anyone in need regardless of which side of the war they fought out of religious conviction. She died as valiantly and honorably as she lived. World War II Two main oversight organizations were responsible for intelligence activities in World War II for the Allies. These were the British SOE, or Special Operations Executive, and the American OSS, or Office of Strategic Services. The SOE was active in virtually every occupied country in Europe along with native operatives in enemy countries, aiding resistance groups and monitoring enemy activity. The American counterpart, the OSS, overlapped some of the SOE operations and also had operatives in the Pacific theater. In addition to traditional spies, these organizations employed many ordinary men and women to covertly provide information on strategic locations and activities while leading apparently normal lives. The OSS eventually became what is now known as the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Americas official spy agency. Virginia Hall An American heroine,  Virginia Hall came from Baltimore, Maryland. From a privileged family, Hall attended fine schools and colleges and wanted a career as a diplomat. Her aspirations were thwarted in 1932 when she lost part of her leg in a hunting accident and had to use a wooden prosthesis. Having resigned from the State Department in 1939, Hall was in Paris at the start of World War II. She worked on an ambulance corps until the Henri Philippe Petain-led Vichy government took over, at which point she moved to England, volunteering for the newly-founded SOE. SOE training completed, she was returned to Vichy-controlled France where she supported the Resistance until complete Nazi takeover. She escaped on foot to Spain through the mountains, continuing her work for the SOE there until 1944, when she joined the OSS and asked to return to France. Returned to France, Hall continued to help the underground Resistance by, among other things, providing maps to Allied forces for drop zones, finding safe houses and providing intelligence activities. She assisted in training at least three battalions of French Resistance forces and continuously reported on enemy movements. The Germans recognized her activities and made her one of their Most Wanted Spies, calling her the woman with a limp and Artemis. Hall had many aliases including Agent Heckler, Marie Monin, Germaine, Diane, and Camille. She managed to teach herself to walk without a limp and employed many disguises, foiling Nazi attempts to capture her. Her success in evading capture was as remarkable as the prodigious work she accomplished. Still active as an operative in 1943, the British quietly awarded Hall the MBE (Member of the Order of the British Empire). Later, in 1945, she was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross by Gen. William Donovan for her efforts in France and Spain. Hers was the only such award to any civilian woman in all of WWII. Hall continued to work for the OSS through its transition to the CIA until 1966. At that time she retired to a farm in Barnesville, MD until her death in 1982. Princess Noor-un-Nisa Inayat Khan A childrens book author may seem an unlikely candidate for international spy induction, but Princess Noor defied any such expectation. The great-niece of Christian Science founder  Mary Baker Eddy  and daughter of Indian royalty, she joined the SOE as Nora Baker in London and trained to operate a wireless radio transmitter. She was sent to occupied France under the code name Madeline, carrying her transmitter from safe house to safe house, maintaining communications for her Resistance unit,  with the Gestapo trailing her all the way. Khan was captured and executed as a spy in 1944. She was posthumously awarded the George Cross, the Croix de Guerre and the MBE for her valor. Violette Reine Elizabeth Bushell Violette Reine Elizabeth Bushell was born in 1921 to a French mother and British father. Her husband Etienne Szabo was a French Foreign Legion officer killed in battle in North Africa. After her husbands death, Bushell was recruited by the SOE and sent to France as an operative on two occasions. On the second of these visits, she was caught giving cover to a Maquis leader. She killed several German soldiers before finally being captured. Despite torture, Bushell refused to give the Gestapo classified information, so was sent to  the concentration camp  Ravensbruck, where she was executed. She was posthumously honored for her work with both the George Cross and the Croix de Guerre in 1946. The Violette Szabo Museum in Wormelow, Herefordshire, England honors her memory as well. She left behind a daughter, Tania Szabo, who wrote her mothers biography,  Young, Brave Beautiful: Violette Szabo GC. Szabo and her highly decorated husband were the most decorated couple in World War II, according to the Guinness Book of World Records. Barbara Lauwers Cpl. Barbara Lauwers, Womens Army Corps, received a Bronze Star for her OSS work, which included using German prisoners for counterintelligence work and cobbling fake passports and other papers for spies and others. Lauwers was instrumental in Operation Sauerkraut, an operation which mobilized German prisoners to spread black propaganda about  Adolf Hitler  behind enemy lines. She created the League of Lonely War Women, or VEK in German. This mythical organization was designed to demoralize German troops by spreading the belief that any soldier on leave could display a VEK symbol and get a girlfriend. One of her operations was so successful that 600 Czechoslovak troops defected behind Italian lines. Amy Elizabeth Thorpe Amy Elizabeth Thorpe, early code name Cynthia, later Betty Pack, worked for the OSS in Vichy, France. She was sometimes used as a swallow- a woman trained to seduce the enemy into sharing secret information- and she participated in break-ins. One daring raid involved taking secret naval codes from a safe within a locked and guarded room. Another involved infiltration of the Vichy French Embassy in Washington D.C., taking important codebooks. Maria Gulovich Maria Gulovich fled Czechoslovakia when it was invaded, emigrating to Hungary. Working with Czech army staff and British and American intelligence teams, she assisted downed pilots, refugees, and resistance members. Gulovich was taken by the KGB and maintained her OSS cover under fierce interrogation while assisting in the Slovak rebellion and rescue efforts for Allied pilots and crews. Julia McWilliams Child Julia Child  was up to much more than gourmet cooking. She wanted to join the WACs or the WAVES but was turned down for being too tall, at a height of 62. Following this rejection, she opted to work in research and development out of the OSS Headquarters in Washington, D.C. Among the projects with which she was involved: a workable shark repellent used for downed flight crews later used for US space missions with water landings and supervising an OSS facility in China. Julia Child handled countless top-secret documents before gaining television fame as The French Chef. Marlene Dietrich German-born  Marlene Dietrich  became an American citizen in 1939. She volunteered for the OSS and served both by entertaining troops on the front lines and by broadcasting nostalgic songs to battle-weary German soldiers as propaganda. She received the Medal of Freedom for her work. Elizabeth P. McIntosh Elizabeth P. McIntosh was a war correspondent and independent journalist who joined the OSS shortly after  Pearl Harbor. She was instrumental in the interception and rewriting of postcards Japanese troops wrote home while stationed in India. She intercepted and detected orders of numerous sorts, chief among them a copy of the Imperial Order discussing terms of surrender which was then disseminated to Japanese troops. Genevieve Feinstein Not every woman in intelligence was a spy as we think of them. Women also played significant roles as cryptanalysts and code breakers for the Signal Intelligence Service (SIS). Genevieve Feinstein was one such woman, having been responsible for creating a machine used to decode Japanese messages. After WWII, she continued to work in intelligence. Mary Louise Prather Mary Louise Prather headed the SIS stenographic section. She was responsible for logging messages in code and preparing decoded messages for distribution. Prather was primarily credited with having uncovered a previously-unnoticed yet distinct correlation between two Japanese messages which led to the decryption of a pivotal new Japanese code system. Juliana Mickwitz Juliana Mickwitz escaped Poland during the Nazi invasion of 1939. She became a translator of Polish, German and Russian documents and worked with the Military Intelligence Directorate of the War Department. She went on to translate voice messages. Josephine Baker Josephine Baker  was a singer and dancer best known at the time as the Creole Goddess, the Black Pearl or the Black Venus for her beauty. But Baker was also a spy working undercover for the French Resistance, smuggling military secrets written in invisible ink on her sheet music  into Portugal from France. Hedy Lamarr Actress Hedy Lamarr made a valuable contribution to the intelligence division by co-producing an anti-jamming device for torpedoes. She also devised a clever way of frequency hopping that prevented the interception of American military messages. Famous for the Road movies with Bob Hope, everyone knew she was an actress but few were aware she was an inventor of military importance. Nancy Grace Augusta Wake New Zealand-born Nancy Grace Augusta Wake, AC GM, was the most decorated servicewoman among Allied troops in WWII. Wake grew up in Australia, working early on as a nurse and later as a journalist. As a journalist, she watched the rise of Hitler, well aware of the dimension of the threat Germany posed. Living in France with her husband at the start of World War II, Wake became a courier for the French Resistance. Among the Gestapos Most Wanted Spies, she was in constant danger, having her phone tapped and her mail read. Nazi Germany eventually put a five million franc price on the head of the woman they called the White Mouse. When her network was uncovered, Wake fled. Forced to leave her husband behind, the Gestapo tortured him to death trying to obtain her location. She was briefly arrested but released and, after six attempts, fled to England where she joined the SOE. In 1944 Wake parachuted back into France to assist the Maquis, where she participated in training highly effective Resistance troops. She once bicycled 100 miles through German checkpoints to replace a lost code and was reputed to have killed a German soldier with her bare hands to save others. After the war she was awarded the Croix de Guerre three times, the George Medal, the Mà ©daille de la Rà ©sistance, and the American Medal of Freedom for her undercover achievements. Afterword These are only a few of the women who served as spies in the two great world wars. Many took their secrets to the grave and were known only to their contacts. They were military women, journalists, cooks, actresses, and ordinary people caught up in extraordinary times. Their stories demonstrate that they were ordinary women of extraordinary courage and inventiveness who helped to change the world with their work. Women have played this role in many wars over the ages, but we are fortunate to have records of quite a few of those women who worked undercover in World War I and World War II, and we are all honored by their accomplishments. Sources and Further Reading The Wolves at the Door: The True Story of Americas Greatest Female Spy  by Judith L. Pearson, The Lyons Press (2005).Sisterhood of Spies  by Elizabeth P. McIntosh, published by the Naval Institute Press.Young, Brave Beautiful: Violette Szabo GC  by Tania Szabo.

History of Astronomy - Rise of Modern in 20th Century

History of Astronomy - Rise of Modern in 20th Century Tycho Brahe has often been called the Father of modern astronomy, and for good reasons. However, I think that title really belongs to Galileo Galilei for his pioneering use of the telescope to magnify the view of the sky. However, Brahe did advance the science more than anyone in the past, simply by using his senses, rather than philosophy to study the sky. The work that Brahe began was continued and expanded by his assistant, Johannes Kepler, whose laws of planetary motion are among the foundations of modern astronomy. There are many other astronomers since Galileo, Brahe, and Kepler who have advanced the science:  Here, in brief, are some of the other bright lights who helped bring astronomy to its current place. Edmund Halley (1656-1742) was a British astronomer who was also a big fan of Sir Isaac Newton. After encouraging Newton to write his Principia, Halley then published it at his own expense. Not stopping to rest on the fame of another, he went on to calculate the orbits of comets, including the one named after him.Sir William Herschel (1738-1822), though born in Germany, was a British astronomer. He discovered Uranus in 1781 coined the word asteroids. He also cataloged about 2,000 nebulae, discovered several satellites of Uranus and Saturn, studied the rotation of planets. Discovered and studied binary stars. He discovered two satellites each orbiting Uranus and Saturn. He studied the rotation period of many planets, the motion of double stars, and nebulae. He cataloged more than 800 double stars and contributed new information on the constitution of nebulae. Herschel was the first to propose that these nebulae were composed of stars. He is considered the founder of sidereal astronomy. Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was a German-born American physicist and Nobel laureate. He may be the most well-known scientist of the 20th century. In 1915, he developed his general theory of relativity, which states that the speed of light is constant and that the curvature of space and the passage of time are linked to gravity. Thinking the universe was unchanging, he inserted a  cosmological constant fudge factor  into his calculations to make them fit his viewpoint.Willem de Sitter: (1872 - 1934), a Dutch astronomer, removed Einsteins cosmological constant from his calculations and used the theory of relativity to show that the universe may always be expanding.Georges-Henri Lemaitre: (1894 - 1966) was not only a Belgian astronomer, he was also a Jesuit priest. Discovering the writings of Russian mathematician, Alexander Friedmann, Lemaitre took his solution for an expanding universe and theorized that if the universe is expanding, if we follow it back to the starting point, the n our universe began as a great cosmic egg which exploded and expanded outward. Lemaitre is often referred to as the father of the Big Bang theory. Edwin P Hubble (1889-1953), American Astronomer. In the 1920s, Albert Einstein stated, I have made my greatest blunder. This pronouncement came when Hubble  demonstrated that the universe was not static and Einsteins cosmological constant was not necessary. Utilizing improved telescopic devices, he was also able to confirm that those fuzzy objects astronomers had seen for years were in fact other galaxies.Thomas Gold (1920 - 2004) was an American astronomer. Though it is generally believed that Golds steady state theory of the universe is incorrect, he made many major contributions to our knowledge of the universe, including the nature of pulsars as rotating neutron stars, and the origin of planetary hydrocarbons. These are just a few of the astronomers and their findings in the pre- and early 20th century history of astronomy. There have been and are many other great brains in the field of astronomy, but its time to get away from history for now. Well meet some of these other astronomers throughout the rest of our lessons. Next, well look at numbers. Fourth Lesson Big Numbers Lesson 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Edited and updated by Carolyn Collins Petersen.

Writing Business Letters 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Writing Business Letters 1 - Essay Example Though the situation posed an ethical dilemma to the judges and might have been viewed as a set of a wrong precedent, the judge decision was appropriate and mandated by the circumstances. Moreover, ones right should not be infringed to protect another as in the case of Jodie right. The ruling by the judge to defend the right of life of Jodie is ethical even though it caused termination to the life of Mary. The decision of the judge had no violation to the law because even without conducting the surgery, Mary would still not survive (The Guardian, n.d). The attorney General conclusion to protect the judges from conviction and criticism further considered the need to remain objective while making the rulings. Mary would still die even without having the surgery and thus decision to protect Jodie right is prudent. Finally, protection of the weaker should not be taken to authorize the violation of the dominant one. Though the submissions of the catholic church, pro-life and the parents had some essence, the judges went ahead to reaffirm to them that the decision does not make killing lawful and gave a comprehensive explanation to their decision (The Guardian, n.d). By so doing, the judges acted ethically and made their ultimate decision without completely disregarding the voices of all the parties. The opponents of the decision should therefore remain open minded and be cognizant of the unique circumstances. The judge’s decision is therefore supported and all parties should appreciate the ruling that saved a life. " A right to life, but not to stay alive | UK news | The Guardian ." Latest US news, world news, sport and comment from the Guardian | guardiannews.com | The Guardian . N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Apr. 2012.

Aris Dilemma Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Aris Dilemma - Essay Example She had been sitting in silence for more than an hour now. She had never imagined that it would be like this. She remembered, for the 100th time, how her mother had gasped in shock when she brought Bilal to their home in Western Texas. Her father tried desperately to pretend that he was pleased at his daughter’s choice of friend. However, the rest of her family only gaped at his elaborate headdress. Bilal was kind enough. Her mother had purposefully tried to make him feel uncomfortable. She constantly wore, on her face, expressions full of hatred at Bilal. She permitted him to talk or comment on anything without openly opposing his comments. Beside, she constantly criticized Bilal’s Muslim culture and culture pointing out the unjust and monopolistic way they treated their women. In addition, she kept telling Bilal that he is not any different from all his Muslim folks as long as they live in Saudi Arabia. Bilal tried to persevere the rampage, from his to be mother-in-la w, in silence, perhaps accepting the truth in silence. â€Å"Ghayda!† Ari took some moments to realize that it was she who was being addressed by the old woman at the door to her right. â€Å"Ghayda!† Her husband’s aunt had given her the name to make her a complete Saudi Arabian. The old woman motioned towards the kitchen.

Compare & Contrast Han and Rome Essay Example for Free

Compare Contrast Han and Rome Essay When Han China and Imperial Rome are compared, one can find both similarities and differences in terms of techniques of imperial administration. A similarity would be that both are bureaucracies. However, both are also different. One major difference is that Han China had the civil service exams. They also differed because Han China had a much greater emphasis on religion than the Romans. These differences led to very different futures for the two empires, both of which were among the strongest in the world at the time. The first comparison is that both Han China and Imperial Rome were bureaucracies. They had a sole ruler, but they had many others governing specific portions of the empire. This allowed for the empire as a whole to be in better shape. This is due to the fact that a more localized ruler would better know both the area and its needs. They would also be more dedicated to their job as they would be managing the area they live in, so every decision they make would impact not only their life but possibly the lives of family living in the regions they are governing. The empires would be much worse off if they had their single ruler managing everything, as they would not fully understand the needs of the areas, nor would they care as much as they would most likely have no personal ties to those regions. Due to this, both empires were much more powerful and well organized. Another comparison is that Han China had the civil service exams, while Imperial Rome had nothing similar. The exam allowed for overall better governing and management of the empire. This is because the examination filtered out those who were unqualified for those positions and instead filled them with intelligent people who could do good for the empire. If they let unqualified people in that would greatly increase poor management because they would not be knowledgeable enough to make decisions that would benefit not only that one area, but the empire as a whole. Without the civil service exams, many unqualified people entered positions of power in Rome, and so there were many problems. The final comparison is that Han China had a greater emphasis on religion than Imperial Rome. In Han China, this was found in the mandate of heaven,  the structure of family found in the government, and that to get a good job in the government one needed to be educated in Confucianism. When the Han first took power, they incorporated the mandate of heaven into Confucian values, If the ruler was a good ruler, then they were supported by the heavens. Confucianism also led to the family hierarchy becoming the basis for government structure. Subjects owed the emperor the same obedience that they gave to their fathers. Religion was also important because one needed to be knowledgeable in Confucianism to get a good job, as the tests were mainly based off of Confucian texts. Rome, on the other hand, had no real religion within the government. While both Han China and Imperial Rome were different in terms of imperial administration because of Han China’s civil service exam, as well as Han China’s focus on religion, they are still similar due to the fact that they are bureaucracies. Even so, these differences and more led to very different futures for both empires, neither of which ended very well.

Matrix Review :: essays research papers

The Matrix Action / Sci-Fi (US); 1999; Rated R; 135 Minutes Cast Keanu Reeves: Thomas "Neo" Anderson Laurence Fishburne: Morpheus Carrie-Anne Moss: Trinity Joe Pantoliano: Cypher Hugo Weaving: Agent Smith Produced by Bruce Berman, Dan Cracchiolo, Andrew Mason, Barrie M. Osborne, Joel Silver, Erwin Stoff, Andy Wachowski and Larry Wachowski Directed and directed by Andy and Larry Wachowski Keanu Reeves as a martial-arts master and savior of the earth? Laurence Fishburne as his mentor? The world as we know it does not even exist? Surely, you can't be serious. Welcome to the fascinating and confusing world of "The Matrix." In this sci-fi thriller, Reeves stars as Neo, a computer programmer by day and cyber-hacker by night. Out of nowhere, he is contacted by a group of super hackers who tell him that his life is in danger and his only hope is to trust them. The group's leader, a quiet but confident man known as Morpheus (Fishburne) tells Neo that he is the one chosen to save the world and that the "Matrix is the wool that has pulled over your eyes - that you are a slave." Neo is the world's only hope. In a nutshell, Morpheus explains that computers developed on their own and won a brutal war against man. So the computers made a program to put all of the slaves back in the past, which is our present day. He tells Neo that he can chose either to live now or to see what the world is truly like. Neo chooses the latter, and the trip down the rabbit hole begins as does the fight for the salvation of humanity. But the battle must be fought out in â€Å"The Matrix†, not the real world, where computer sentinels are seemingly invincible and where the laws of physics can not only be bent, they can be tossed right out the window. With that kind of freedom, characters can run up the sides of walls, leap incredible distances, dodge bullets, and with the help of Hong Kong stunt specialist Yuen Wo Ping, pull off some of the most impressive kung fu fight sequences ever filmed. Slow-motion film sequences, some shot at the rate of 12,000 frames per second, allow the filmmakers to manipulate the on-screen action much like in the Gap commercials where the dancers are frozen and the camera angle shifts around them. Andrew Mason lends the film the same look he gave Dark City, only this time the good guys wear black and everyone else is either a sentinel or prime fodder for target practice.

African American Identity Essay

It was a hot August day as sweat beat down on Thomas Jefferson Brown. He had been working in the field 2 hours before the hot sun had made its presence known. He looked back over the drying field, hoping that this crop would provide for his family better than last years crop had. Thomas watched his oldest son, Nathan, who worked down one row of the field while staring intently at the cotton plants as he picked the cotton. Nathan was a very inquisitive young man who had just yesterday asked his father what it was like being a slave for Mr. Walter Johnson. When his father had told him that in a lot of ways life was so much easier than now, Nathan had given him a look that allowed Thomas to know that his son could not understand. How could he understand? Nathan had not grown up a slave and seen that while it was extremely difficult, there was a feeling of stability to life then. Yes, Thomas Jefferson Brown had endured the beatings and yes he had watched as his Mother and eventually his sisters had been sexually assaulted, but how do you tell a young man such as Nathan that such was the way of life; it was to be expected, along with the comfort of knowing where your next meal was going to come from. Since Tomas had been freed after the great war, He s and his family had endured much more than that; having watched the lynching of two of his brothers and numerous friends. They were the lucky ones though, Thomas thought, while looking up at the fiery ball of heat known as the sun. They did not have to endure other hardships; their suffering was over. Yes it was hard for Nathan to know that life was indeed easier as a slave than a freed man, and maybe, just maybe, things would change during Nathan’s lifetime. Thomas Jefferson Brown wiped his brow once more and continued on picking the cotton? Even though the civil war ended in 1865, African Americans still faced an uphill battle to obtain rights that were afforded other Americans. This was in spite of the fact that 24 African American soldiers earned our Nations highest honor; the Congressional Medal of Honor, during the Civil War. Even with the passing of the 13th Amendment in 1865 banning slavery and the 14th Amendment giving African Americans citizenship and equal protection under the law, there were still so many other issues that would deprive African Americans of their lawful rights, such as having the first African American elected into the 41st Congress in 1869 continuing through 1901 with the 57th congress, which had no African Americans. This trend would continue until the election of 1929 before another African American was elected to congress. In 1873 the Supreme Court decision ruled that the 14th-Amendment guarantee of equal protection of the laws extended only to federal civil rights, thus removing southern states from the duty to protect the civil rights of African Americans, but it was just not their rights that were taken; but their lives as well. Between 1882 and the end of 1900, 1751 African Americans and 1105 white Americans were lynched for trying to further the African American cause (National). Given all of this discrimination and violence, it is hard to imagine that anyone would be willing to further the African American cause, but many stood ready to not only give of themselves, but perhaps even to give their life for this noble cause. African American writers were presented with these problems of equality and self esteem, and yet have truly transformed and continue to support a freed people, to obtain all of their rights. What follows is from three writers who each in his own way contributed mightily to the African American cause. They are W. E. B. Du Bois, Marcus Garvey, and Glen Loury. First, we have W. E. B. (William Edward Burghardt) Dubois, who was born on February 23, 1868 in Great Barrington, Massachusetts. Dubois was one of the most influential black leaders of the first half of the 20th Century. Dubois shared in the founding of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, or NAACP, in 1909. He served as its director of research and editor of its magazine Crisis until 1934. He was the first African American to graduate from Harvard University, which he accomplished in 1896. At first, Dubois thought that African Americans could be freed through the Social Sciences, but quickly became disillusioned with this idea and began to believe that freedoms could only come about by agitation and protest(Chew). Dubois recognized that the African American’s of his day faced many problems, not the least of which were of the life threatening variety. After his disillusionment with helping African Americans through the social sciences, Dubois thought that African Americans needed to develop their own culture, which was definitely more American than African. Dubois enjoyed the unique African American culture, particularly that of the Negro spiritual songs. Dubois thought that African Americans should not give in to what white Americans expectations were of African Americans, but to continue to develop as a people. Dubois wrote that all people regardless of their culture, heritage, sex, should be treated as equals. Dubois also thought that African Americans should not worry about competing with the world as a group, but that they should join together to help each other. He eventually was forced to leave the United States because the government considered Dubois an agent of the Soviet Union. That is why he immigrated to Ghana, first obtaining Ghana citizenship, joined the communist party and eventually died there in 1963. Dubois was there for all future African Americans to follow his example. Dubois founding of the NAACP led to many victories for the rights of all Americans, most of which he never saw. Next we have Marcus Mosiah Garvey, who was born in Jamaica on 17 August 1887. Mr. Garvey is best remembered as a pivotal figure in the struggle for racial equality, not just in the United States but throughout the world as well. He founded the UNIA (Universal Negro Improvement Association) and African Communities League in 1914 while still in Jamaica, and also championed the ‘back to Africa’ movement of the 1920s. Of the Africans who departed, Garvey thought, some had left independently while others were brutally removed for economic gain and exploitation. Garvey perceived that the main problems facing not only African Americans, but Africans as well was that they must first go back to Africa and free their African brothers before moving on to other parts of the world. Through the organizations that Garvey had formed (UNIA and ACL), he reasoned that until Africa is free and redeemed, not only in name but in reality, no one would be free, Black or White. Garvey reasoned that no matter what one’s race was we are all bound together by the Creator, which is Spirit. The Creator has a purpose for everyone and that purpose did not include being made a slave or subject to anyone for that matter. While Dubois and Garvey did not see eye to eye on the issues involving African Americans, Garvey did align himself closely with Dr Robert Love, and Dr Loves teachings that a race could progress no further than the dignity and esteem of their women and younger girls. Garvey and Love thought that the best way to plant the seeds of dignity and self-esteem would be through the woman and younger girl. Last, we have Glen Loury, who was born in 1948. Mr. Loury is a professor of economics at Boston University while also being a consultant to the Federal Trade Commission. Mr. Loury has devoted a major portion of his career to the study of race and public policy. He is the author of ‘On the Need for Moral Leadership in the Black Community’, ‘Responsibility and Race’, ‘Impact of Affirmative Action on Equal Opportunity: A New Look’, and most recently ‘A New American Dilemma’. Mr. Loury saw many problems facing not only African American, but also all Americans, including the civil rights policies of 1960-1985, which seemed to have been based on equality of outcome rather than on equality of opportunity. Mr. Loury also thought that affirmative action policies created backlash. Loury maintained that all Americans should have equal rights with none being given favorable treatment over any other. Loury reasoned that it is hard to justify denying admission to an elite college to anyone who struggled to be able to pass the admissions exam; while admitting a member of a designated minority group, who did not work near as hard to earn his score and is only admitted based on his minority status. Such actions build resentment towards these policies and are only heightened when defenders of the policies claim that to question these policies is to engage in a racist act. Mr. Loury contends that giving preferential treatment with no sound explanation only led to more heightened tensions and is a very grievous error on the part of those who merely wish to be advocates of affirmative action. Loury did see, that there was a proper use of affirmative action, such as on police forces around the country that had a significant percentage of African American citizens and yet none on the police force. These Authors present their own conclusions and reasoning’s for what happened to the African Americans previous to, and of their own time. These writers used the influences of other African Americans and were also pioneers themselves. All of these writers believed in equality for everyone and thus did share at least one common goal. In Mr. Dubois we have a writer and scholar who originally thought that through a study of Social Sciences and doing what was right could African Americans receive their rights, and yet Dubois was able to refocus and remain firm in his opinions of helping each other and thus able to help not only the African American’s of his generation, but the ones to follow as well. Mr. Dubois saw all of the problems besetting African Americans and knew that they must unite, working together, to build a culture of their own, that would allow all African Americans to have a better life. Mr. Garvey on the other hand, perceived that until the rights and freedoms were restored in the entire African continent, Africans elsewhere would always be treated as second-class citizens. Garvey along with Dr Robert Love, thought that it was through the African women, especially the younger women, that Africans had a chance to make a difference in providing a better future. Mr. Loury saw problems that came about because of the Civil Rights movement, and that African Americans should not merely rely on being a minority to get ahead in life, but instead grab the opportunity that was before them so as not to create a political backlash. Each of these writers have stood their ground for what they believe in, and our world we live in today is better for it. Each of these writers, in their own time, helped frame not just African Americans lives but has truly transformed and continues to support a freed people, obtain all, of their rights. Works Cited Chew, Robin â€Å"W. E. B. Dubois Sociologist, Author & Civil Rights Leader 1868 ? 1963†³ February 26, 2005. 6 Feb 2006 Dr Coony, Mark â€Å"Race and Affirmative Action† 6 Feb 2006 Du Bois, W. E. B. â€Å"Of our Spiritual Strivings. † Cultural Conversations The Presence of the Past. Ed Stephen Dilks, et al. Boston: Bedford/St Martin, 2001. 131-145 Garvey, Marcus â€Å"Motive of the NAACP Exposed† Cultural Conversations The Presence of the Past. Ed Stephen Dilks, et al. Boston: Bedford/St Martin, 2001. 153-154 Loury, Glenn. â€Å"Free at Last? A Personal Perspective on Race ad Identity in America. † Cultural Conversations The Presence of the Past. Ed Stephen Dilks, et al. Boston: Bedford/St Martin, 2001. 173-180 â€Å"Marcus Garvey Biography† November 2000, K. W. Spence-Lewis Consultant Researcher Community Health and Planning Plant Science. â€Å"The Making of African American Identity VOL II 1863-1917† National Humanities Center 6 Feb 06 Bibliography Chew, Robin â€Å"W. E. B. Dubois Sociologist, Author & Civil Rights Leader 1868 ? 1963† February 26, 2005. 6 Feb 2006 Dr Coony, Mark â€Å"Race and Affirmative Action† 6 Feb 2006 Du Bois, W. E. B. â€Å"Of our Spiritual Strivings. † Cultural Conversations The Presence of the Past. Ed Stephen Dilks, et al. Boston: Bedford/St Martin, 2001. 131-145 Garvey, Marcus â€Å"Motive of the NAACP Exposed† Cultural Conversations The Presence of the Past. Ed Stephen Dilks, et al. Boston: Bedford/St Martin, 2001. 153-154 Loury, Glenn. â€Å"Free at Last? A Personal Perspective on Race ad Identity in America. † Cultural Conversations The Presence of the Past. Ed Stephen Dilks, et al. Boston: Bedford/St Martin, 2001. 173-180 â€Å"Marcus Garvey Biography† November 2000, K. W. Spence-Lewis Consultant Researcher Community Health and Planning Plant Science. â€Å"The Making of African American Identity VOL II 1863-1917† National Humanities Center 6 Feb 06.